Marian Reforms and the Roman Empire
The Marian reforms had profound long-term impacts on both the Roman army and the Republic. In order to fully comprehend the reforms, one must delve into the persona of Gaius Marius, who, despite his major contributions, is relatively unknown to history. The reforms themselves acted as the catalyst to which Rome possessed a permanent, standing army, not only to protect Rome’s interests but to expand upon them as well. Essentially it gave Roman military leaders much more power than they had possessed before. The reforms were tailored in such a way that the military legion was, in some cases, more loyal to the leading commander than to Rome itself[1].
These and several other movements of change sculpted the very history of the late Republic and later the early Empire and influenced the territorial expansion of Rome as we know it, a glorious, imperial, city-state.
Plutarchs View on the Marian Reforms
Plutarch’s Lives[2] offers a comprehensive insight into the Ancient world’s plethora of influential figures. Plutarch would, from a source basis, possess a relatively objective viewing of Marius’ life. Since the author’s origins are Hellenic and the time period of his existence is between 46-120 AD[3], the situation surrounding the author would not lead him to hold a subjective perspective.
As is the case Plutarch is the only, comprehensive, primary source that gives insight into Marius’ life, even then Plutarch fails to compare the latter’s life with another figure, as he does with so many others. Marius, according to Plutarch, hailed from the Arpinium region in the central Italian Peninsula. His parents, unlike most other notable figures, possessed simplistic trades and according to Plutarch: “supported themselves by their daily labor”.[4]
In other words, Plutarch states that Marius seemed the least likely figure to undertake the role of Roman military Reformation. Having possessed the minimum requirements of fifth census class[5], a clause of recruitment he was later to alter, Marius joined the army of Rome. Plutarch makes passing reference to Marius’ military exploits against the Celtiberians and the southern Germanic Cimbri rebels.
Marius Rise to Power
Marius’s true political break came when he was betrothed to Julia[6], a member of the aristocratic Julii Caesares. It is here that Marius gained the attention of the senate, so much so that he was given the position of Legate in the military campaign against Numidian Jugurtha. During his ventures in the campaign, Marius began to observe the weaknesses of Rome’s armies. The ethical standing of the military leaders as well as the loyalty and motivation felt by the Roman foot soldier was evidently reflective of the overall situation of the war.
The Jugurthine conflict had grown so unpopular that replacements for losses had grown thin. As Peter Connolly shows us: “The soldier was only called up when needed, and he was discharged as soon as the emergency was over”[7] Essentially the defense of Roman interests and that of Rome itself was based around civilian volunteers who had to provide his own armor and weaponry.[8] At the time of the Jugurthine campaign, the Roman army had been halted to a frustrating stalemate situation.
In these turbulent times of war, Plutarch gives us an account of Marius’s actions: “It is the most obliging sight in the world to the Roman soldier to see a commander eat the same bread as himself, or lie upon an ordinary bed, to assist the work in the drawing a trench and raising a bulwark”.[9] This gave Marius a first-hand account of how the Roman soldier operated at the frontline, he was then able to assess the necessary amendments to this already prestigious fighting force.[10]
Marius Military Amendments
In the latter half of 107 BC, Marius introduced a number of amendments, which he felt would bring victory against Jugurtha.[11] As mentioned before the minimum requirement for a standard Roman soldier was the fact that he had to be of a Fifth Census Class or higher. The peasantry or capite censi[12], which literally translated means “those counted by the head”, were to be included for recruitment. Since most of these people possessed no land and thus had no means to provide their own weaponry Marius introduced the state-supplied armory.
Unlike past precedents, these men were to make up the backbone of a permanent standing army, professionally trained by the State. As Connolly elucidates: “Soon after Marius’s reforms, legions were formed that continued to exist throughout the life of the empire”.[13] In addition, Connolly also clarifies that the payment of the regular Soldier in the past had been comprised of a very small fee.
Since the new category lacked any financial backing they relied solely on their Commanding officer or Legionnaire for sustenance and capital. As a result, the men within a particular legion became a form of clientele to the legion commander, giving the latter a personal, fully permanent, professional army. The immense power a particular military leader could have possessed was to have dire consequences to the makeup of the Roman state during its later, tumultuous conversion to an Empire.[14]
The Military strategy of Marius
Marius did not only reform the strategic and political structure of the Army. He made several changes to the tactical details as well. Since most soldiers prior to the reforms of 107 BC possessed their own armament all weaponry and armor lacked similarity and could be likened to that of a rag-tag, militia force. Frontline commanders, therefore, lacked any knowledge on the specific details of each unit’s capabilities, which resulted in several Roman defeats at the hands of Jugurtha and prior.[15] Marius’s reforms offered volunteers state-supplied weapons, mass-produced for each unit.[16]
Skirmishers and javelin infantry were all but erased from the composition of the army, they were to be replaced with long-range archers and later siege machines. Connolly again gives us an insight into this modification: “The velites of the time of Aemilius Paullus, who had been lightly armed with only javelins and shields, disappeared from History”.[17]
From a formation level, Marius changed the very nature of a combat unit. Originally the Roman army adopted the distinction between the Triarii (Spearmen), Principes (Swordsmen), and Hastati (light infantry). Marius reformed this to bridge the barriers between the three units, from 107 BC onward all standard Roman soldiers were to be armed alike with swords and Pilum (spear).
This gave field commanders a better grasp of what a unit was capable of and thus were able to incorporate this knowledge into battlefield movements and strategy. The changes were intended to change the basis of the armed forces, as a result, the higher officers and later legionnaires were still to be drawn from Rome’s aristocracy.
The effects of the reforms were felt almost immediately upon the battlefield. Marius returned to the frontline following the reformation of his soldiers. In 105 BC Marius led the newly founded Roman cohorts to victory against Jugurtha at the Battle of Thala.[18] From a strategic perspective, the Roman Republic expanded on a much wider and broader front. As Connolly states: “With the birth of this new-style army we enter the short but brilliant age of the adventurer general.
Within the next 50 years, Rome doubled the size of her empire.”[19] These lands encompassed a predominant portion of Hispania, Turkey, Tunisia, and the southern islands of Greece. The swiftness of the wars of conquest for the aforementioned lands was done within a 50-year era, which could only have been accomplished with the presence of a well-disciplined, permanent invasion force.
From a political perspective, the Marian reforms contributed to the conversion of the Roman Republic to an Empire. As mentioned earlier the reforms heralded an age of total loyalty of the soldiers to their commander as a result of the elimination of social restrictions. This essentially meant that the commander held a large sway over the soldier’s very survival. Following Marius’s reforms, the Roman military units were almost completely made up of the poor, plebeian classes.
Once they joined a particular military unit they relied almost completely on their Commanding officer for sustenance, both financially and in terms of resources. After their first few battles, these permanent units began to form an identity. Evidence of this can be seen in the Legion’s numbering and naming during the time of the late republic and early Empire. For example, Legion VI based in the Iberian Peninsula was named “Victrix”.[20]
Furthermore, the induction of a “Republican” eagle, representative of the God Jupiter[21], as a Roman military standard with letters S.P.Q.R (Senatus Populusque Romanus)[22] written below it, acted as the definition of a particular unit. Following the aforementioned regalia, the standard would possess the unit name, division number, and symbol.[23] Small changes like the ones mentioned before had radical impacts on the psychological makeup of a unit. No longer did a soldier fight for protecting his lands from invasion on a temporary basis, but rather fought for personal glory and gain all in the name of Rome. Intrinsically this glory and gain could only be reached through the command prowess of the military leader.
Loyalty from the state to the Generals
As a result, the men within legions were far more loyal to one particular military leader rather than to the Roman Senate and people. This set the stage for the tumultuous and bitter era of the Roman Civil wars fuelled almost solely by personal ambition coupled with powerful, personally based, armies. The first major war of a civil-personal nature was made witness to, ironically, the defeat of Gaius Marius at the hands of Lucius Sulla[24], the latter being one of the factors in the fall of Marius’s influences.
From a long-term perspective, the Marian Reforms established several factors, which led to the establishment of the Roman Empire. Due to the overabundance of civil strife within Rome’s frontiers and the ineptitude of the senate to prevent them the Roman political and social attitude began moving towards a more autocratic train of political thought. This attitude was further asserted through Julius Caesar’s declaration of dictatorship in 82 BC.[25] The Marian reforms also heralded in a resurgence of pride for the city-state by its civil populace.
Since the reforms offered military recruitment to anyone who was a Roman citizen it acted as a form of an increase in the patriotic fervor felt by the masses within Rome. This contributed greatly to the expansion of the Roman Republic’s frontiers as the military expanded numerically and qualitatively. It also allowed Roman leaders to further assert their control over provinces and territories already under Rome’s influence. Overall the long-term impacts of the Marian reforms offered both positive influences towards territorial expansion and acted as the catalyst for the break out of large-scale civil strife. Hence it is safe to conclude that the reforms acted as one of the contributory agents that led to Rome’s conversion from a Republic to an Empire.
Conclusion
The Marian reforms offered a reinvigoration for the Roman army and the Republic from a short-term perspective. The figure of Gaius Marius himself is cloaked since the only ancient author who noted his biography was not even of Roman descent. As analyzed earlier the writings of Plutarch must come under a certain amount of conjecture due to the author’s Hellenic background. Marius himself is offered no place within the annals of Rome’s history.
As a result one comes to question the importance, or the lack thereof, the Romans emphasized the figure that had such a profound effect on the very history of the Roman epoch. Marius, like most instigators of events, lacked the hindsight to perceive the long-term impacts his reforms would have. As clarified earlier the reforms had far more dire consequences for Rome as compared to the immediate effects.
Political and power-based feuds were carried forth by influential leaders whose ambitions were fuelled by powerful personal armies. When one observes the reforms as a single event in Rome’s history in comparison to its immediate and long-term consequences one realizes that even the smallest of events can alter the entire fate of a people. As Aldous Huxley states: “nothing changes and yet everything is completely different.”[26]
Bibliography.
Ancient Sources:
- CLOUGH, Arthur. Plutarch’s Lives: the Dryden Edition, Everyman’s Library, 1971.
- Marius and Sulla, (2006) [ONLINE], available from Internet August 29th: http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Apollo/Background/MS1.html
Contemporary Sources:
- CRAWFORD, Michael, The Roman Republic, Harvester Press/Humanities Press, 1978.
- CONNOLLY, Peter, The Roman Army, Macdonald Publishers, 1975.
- Gaius Marius (2003) [ONLINE], available from the internet on August 24th: http://www.unrv.com/empire/gaius-marius.php
- Plutarch’s Parallel Lives: Gaius Marius, (2005) [ONLINE], available from Internet on September 1st: http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_plutarch_cmarius.htm
- Battle of Noreia, (2005) [ONLINE], available from Internet on September 1st: http://www.germannotes.com/archive/article.php?products_id=677
- Rome- Historical Flags (Italy), Gutterman, Dov, (2003) [ONLINE], available from Internet on September 3rd.: http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/it_rome.html
- History Quotes, Lewis, Jone, (2006) [ONLINE], available from Internet on September 1st: http://www.wisdomquotes.com/cat_history.html
[1] As seen with Augustus’ rise to power.
[2] A.H. Clough, (1971), Plutarch’s Parallel Lives: the Dryden Edition. Everyman’s Library, London.
[3] Ibid
[4] The conflicting argument, some say Marius came from an agricultural background, Plutarch claims his father was a laborer. Either way, Marius seemed the least likely candidate for a military reformer.
[5] Roman system of classification through the monetary amount of Asses a citizen had. 11,000 asses being of the fifth class.
[6] Julia was an aunt to the later famed Roman leader Julius Caesar.
[7] Connolly C., (1984), The Roman Army, Macdonald Publishers, London.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Clough, Op. Cit. Pg. 79
[10] The Roman republic by this time was already covering 308,882 Sq. miles of European and N. African territory. (Crawford M., (1978), The Roman Republic, Harvester/ Humanities Press, Great Britain.)
[11] The Romans had been soundly defeated at both the battles of Suthul and Muthul by Jugurtha’s forces. (Www.unrv.com/empire//gaius-marius.php.)
[12] Crawford M., (1978), The Roman Republic, Harvester/ Humanities Press, Great Britain.
[13] Connolly, Op. Cit. Pg.26
[14] An example of combat with personal armies can be the civil dispute between Caesar and Pompey Magnus. (Www.unrv.com/empire//gaius-marius.php.)
[15] The Battle of Noreia, 113 BC (www.germannotes.com/archive/article.php?products_id=677)
[16] Connolly, Op. Cit. Pg 30.
[17] Ibid.
[18]http://www.unrv.com/empire/war-with-jugurtha.php
[19] Connolly, Op.Cit. Pg 25.
[20] Ibid. Pg. 38.
[21]http://www.unrv.com/empire/marius-reforms-legions.php
[22] http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/it_rome.html
[23] Connolly, Op. Cit., Pg 42.
[24] http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Apollo/Background/MS1.html
[25] Connolly, Op.Cit, Pg. 75
[26] http://www.wisdomquotes.com/cat_history.html